Clinton+Years

Clinton Years



The introduction of classroom computers occurred.

__**Secretary of Education**__ Richard Riley - former governor of South Carolina. He served both terms under President Clinton, making him the longest tenured secretary of education in history.

**Major education actions (1993-1996):**  **Major education actions (1997-2000):**  1993, 1995 - Sandia Report and **//The Manufactured Crisis//**, two major reports, challenge the conclusions of //A Nation at Risk//. 1996-97 - **New York Learning Standards** approved in 1996, and phased in beginning of 1997. Plan aims to set high standards and revise assessment, build the capacity of schools to support learning, and develop institutional accountability with public reporting.
 * 1994 - Education of the Deaf Act Amendments of 1993 (P.L. 103-73)
 * 1994 - Goals 2000: Educate America Act (P.L. 103-227)
 * 1994 - School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA; P.L. 103-239)
 * 1994 - Improving America's Schools Act (reauthorization of ESEA; P.L. 103-382)
 * 1994 - Education Infrastructure Act (in P.L. 103-382)
 * 1994 - Bilingual Education Act amended (in P.L. 103-382)
 * 1996 - Museum and Library Services Act (P.L. 104-208)
 * 1997 - Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) reauthorization (P.L. 105-17)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1998 - Workforce Investment Act (replaces/repeals Adult Education Act; P.L. 105-220)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1998 - Higher Education Amendments of 1998 (P.L. 105-244)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1998 - Reading Excellence Act (in P.L. 105-277)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1998 - COATS Human Services Reauthorization Act (P.L. 105-285)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1998 - Head Start Amendments (in P.L. 105-285)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1998 - Indian Education Assistance Act (amends Johnson-O'Malley; P.L. 105-292)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1998 - Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act (P.L. 105-332)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">1999 - Education Flexibility Partnership Demonstration Act (Goals 2000; P.L. 106-25)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">2000 - Sections 112 & 115 of American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act (P.L. 106-313)
 * __Federal-State Education Policy Chronology 1990-1999__**

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">__**Educational Goals**__ Contract with America (1994) The 1994 elections, marked by the proposed new "Contract for America," put Republicans in control of both houses of Congress for the first time since the 1950s. The 1995 session brought many efforts to eliminate Goals 2000-or to defund certain portions of it-and reduce the overall federal funding of education. Most of these attempts failed because of both vigorous opposition by education constituents and, in large part, presidential vetoes.

Goals 2000 Clinton's first legislative proposal-and success-was called Goals 2000: The Educate America Act. Introduced in 1993, the act was influenced by recommendations from the National Council on Education Standards and Testing, the Goals Panel, and the experience of states with systemic reforms. In the act, Congress legislated the six national goals of the National Education Goals Panel while adding two more, which focused on teacher quality and parental responsibility. These last two topics met with opposition from many early advocates of national goals, who wanted to restrict goals to student performance.

The core of Goals 2000 was a grant program to support state development of standards and assessments and school district implementation of standards-based reform. Goals 2000 was not another discrete federal program, and it required very little regulation. It recognized, and supported, the systemic reform efforts that many states had under way. Any state that was basically adhering to the idea of standards-based, systemic reform and had a planning process to support that effort could get funding under Goals 2000. It was an unusual federal program because it did not target a particular group of students or subject areas; rather, it supported a generic reform strategy that emphasized the development of state standards and the assessments needed to measure progress toward them. It required that in the last three of five years, most of the funds were to go to local districts and schools to implement state standards.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;"> __Improving America's Schools Act__ In parallel with Goals 2000, Clinton advanced proposals for reauthorization and modification of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), now called <span class="wiki_link_ext">Improving America's Schools Act or IASA (P.L. 103-382).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Varied Impact
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">The reliance of Goals 2000 on state-by-state initiatives meant that its impact varied greatly from state to state, district to district, even school to school. Given that the vast majority of funding had to be spent at the district level, there was not a great deal of money available for building state capacity to help underresourced districts. Moreover, with a relatively small amount of funds spread among some 5,000 districts, there were major problems in creating a critical mass of support for preparing teachers to use new standards and develop instructional materials. An Urban Institute study on the use and effects of Goals 2000 grants found that small and/or high-poverty districts particularly struggled with the implementation of standards-based reform. Specifically, these districts had difficulty accessing the support that would have allowed them to design successful programs and strategies. Small districts also struggled in the Goals 2000 environment: they too were not connected to sources of expertise and information-likely due to the small number of professionals not directly involved in teaching-and thus did not have access to resources that might have helped them.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Despite shortcomings at the local level, Goals 2000 provided the major source of funds to move forward with systemic reform efforts. State education agencies developed these reforms, which received support from governors who had participated in the 1989 education summit and from business leaders who were committed to those principles. Though some states initially declined the Goals 2000 funds on the grounds of preserving states' rights, forty-eight accepted grants under the Goals 2000 program within two years of its initiation. Within three years, more than one-third of the country's almost 15,000 school districts had received a Goals 2000 grant through their state.

Prior to IASA, the Title I program of ESEA permitted states to use achievement "standards" for economically disadvantaged students that were different from, and less challenging than, those for other students. IASA, in contrast, required that the standards for Title I and non-Title I students be the same: that is, both sets of students must meet the standards that states were developing with support from Goals 2000.

The IASA law received widespread support from both Republicans and Democrats who liked the focus on standards. Also voicing support were the education and business communities and the Commission on Chapter 1. IASA-which restored the original 1965 name, //Title I//, to the largest program directing federal grants to low-achieving students in low-income districts-marked one of the most significant uses of federal power in state and local education policy. By requiring that standards and accountability be the same for all children, it made Title I funding, the largest single federal funding stream for elementary and secondary education, contingent on state and local decisions around standards, testing, teacher training, curriculum, and accountability. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;"> [|State of the Union address] <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">**__Issues Impacting Education__** <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">__**State and Local Reform**__ __Systemic Reform__ States took full advantage of the funding that became available for broader uses, in contrast with the categorical funds that had traditionally come from the federal government. One of the largest recipients and most visible users of Goals 2000 funds was the state of Texas: between 1994 and 1997, Governor George W. Bush's state received over $100 million from the program, which in Texas was called Academics 2000. This funding supported the development of the state's standards and tests-Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), an aligned assessment program-as well as widespread professional development and education programs.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">__Assessments and Standards__
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">The 1994 reauthorization also created the Eisenhower Professional Development Program, which supported professional development efforts in the subject areas, created a new technology program to support the development and delivery of software for standards-based instruction, and advanced other objectives through the Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act. All of this was done to assist schools and districts in meeting the standards they had set.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">To help free districts from what were portrayed as the constraints of federal policy, Clinton promoted something called EdFlex -the ability for states to get waivers from some federal requirements. The waivers were meant to allow districts the flexibility they needed to align practices with the changing state environments in which they now found themselves.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;"> As part of systemic reform, both the <span class="wiki_link_ext">IASA and Goals 2000 required states to align their program assessments (i.e., state tests) with clear subject-matter standards. The idea was to create a coherent framework for curriculum, assessment, teacher training, performance objectives, and financial accountability.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">__School to Work__
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Also passed in 1994 was the School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA), jointly administered by the Departments of Education and Labor to provide work experience for high school and post-high school students. Funds disbursed under the program were to help states develop systems that would link school and work experiences. The combination of school and work would result in both a high school diploma and a certificate documenting a student's experience with a particular work skill.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">__Compromises and Compliance__
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Using education as a major campaign issue, Clinton won his second term in 1996, beating Senator Robert Dole. This election was the last time that the Republican Party would call for reduced public school funding. In his first State of the Union address after his re-election, Clinton proposed detailed educational plans-voluntary national tests in fourth-grade reading and eighth-grade math, tutoring, after-school programs, and funding of 100,000 new teachers to shrink class size.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">School Choice and Tax Credits
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Childrens Educational Opportunity Fund
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Home Schooling
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">The Christian Right
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Desegregation
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Poverty and Drugs
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Immigration
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Multiculturalism

__High Stakes Testing and Opportunity to Learn (OTL)__ By the mid-1990s, federal pressure to spur state and local accountability in student achievement was widely accepted. In 1996, as part of this effort, the Regents approved new learning standards to be phased in gradually: all students graduating from high school would be required to pass state Regents exams in English, math, global history, U.S. history, and natural science. Requiring students to pass standardized exams before graduating or progressing from grade to grade-a practice known as "high-stakes" testing. The concept of "opportunity-to-learn" (OTL) and OTL standards became a major issue as state and local governments began to test more and use the results for decisions that made a high impact on the lives of students and teachers.

__Workforce Investment Act__ In 1998, keeping with the theme of state-business cooperation in school reform, President Clinton signed the [|Workforce Investment Act](P.L. 105-220), which paid for "(A) tutoring, study skills training, and instruction, leading to completion of secondary school, including dropout prevention strategies; (B) alternative secondary school services, as appropriate; (C) summer employment opportunities that are directly linked to academic and occupational learning; (D) as appropriate, paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing; (E) occupational skill training, as appropriate; (F) leadership development opportunities, which may include community service and peer-centered activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors during non-school hours, as appropriate; (G) supportive services; (H) adult mentoring for the period of participation and a subsequent period, for a total of not less than 12 months; (I) followup services for not less than 12 months after the completion of participation, as appropriate; and (J) comprehensive guidance and counseling, which may include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and referral, as appropriate."

E.D. Hirsch Jr. - The Schools We Need and Why We Don't Have Them
 * __Influential People__**

__Private and Nonprofit Sector Players__ <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;"> [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Center for Educational Innovation-Public Education Association
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Council on Basic Education
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Manhattan Institute's Center for Civic Innovation and Education Reform
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Education Trust and the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Twenty-First Century Schools Project of the Progressive Policy Institute
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Democratic Leadership Council
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Council for Basic Education
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">The American Federation of Teachers
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Fordham Foundation
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;"> Coalition of Essential Schools
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Edison Project
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Fair Test
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Coalition for Authentic Reform in Education
 * __Citations__**