Post+Sputnik+Era

​ PostSputnik Era Education in the Post-Sputnik Era 1958-1980

//“Sputnik // was launched in the fall of 1957. In the fall of 1958, it felt to the high-school students of the United States as if the country was launching //us// in reply” (Hickam, 1998, p. 140).

media type="youtube" key="lgUcX-sOArU" height="369" width="438" align="right" media type="youtube" key="o-mZ9pKvCmk" height="360" width="420" align="left" [|National Museum of American History] [|Sputnik’s Legacy] ​



Quotes from //Rocket Boys// by Homer Hickam, Jr.

Spring, 1958 Big Creek was to be restructured, [Mr. Turner] said, beginning with the junior class. A more challenging academic curriculum was to be installed the result of //Sputnik// and the worry over how badly educated America’s children were compared to Russian kids. Mr. Turner gripped the lectern and looked down on us. ‘There will be no more easy classes at this school,’ he announced. ‘After you leave Big Creek, some of you boys will go to work in the coal mines, some will go into the service, some – not enough, in my opinion- will go to college. You girls will be wives, nurses, teachers, secretaries, maybe even someday one of you will be the president of the United States…Now, about these new standards,’ he said. ‘They’re not going to be easy to meet. It’s not only content. From my analysis of the new curriculum, there’s at least twice the amount of material to cover in a school year. That’s going to mean a lot of concentrated classroom work and a lot of homework. You must completely dedicate yourselves. Remember this: the only good citizen is the well-educated citizen.’ (pp. 111-112)

The following fall: We were soon to learn that more had changed at Big Creek than the lack of football. Our teachers sat us down, shut us up, and began to talk rapidly at the blackboard, outlining the courses and what would be expected of us in the new //Sputnik//-inspired curriculum. Astonishing homework assignments filled our notebooks. Books began to stack up. Mimeographed handouts flew down the aisles. Clutching books and papers, we slogged from class to class, our arms wrapped around the material. The same thing was happening in high schools in every state. //Sputnik// was launched in the fall of 1957. In the fall of 1958, it felt to the high-school students of the United States as if the country was launching //us// in reply (p. 140).



[|The National Aeronautics and Space Act 1958] [|NASA at 50]

[|Mr. Wizard circa 1960]

[|The National Defense Education act of 1958: Selected Outcomes] In response to Sputnik, the National Defense of Education Act of 1958 was passed. This act provided funds to encourage the pursuit of mathematics and science education. The implications for elementary and secondary schools was the sudden availability of money to purchase equipment for science laboratories.

Curricular Reforms in the Post-[|Sputnik] Era (1957-1980)
[|Learn More...]

The NDEA was influenced by the Soviet launch of the satellite Sputnik on October 4, 1957. The launch shook the American belief that the USA was superior in Math and Science to all other countries. The citizens of the United States feared that schools of the Soviet Union were superior to American schools, and Congress reacted by adding the act to take US schools up to speed. The NDEA provided significant funding for STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) programs at US colleges and universities. BSCS, PSSC, ISCS, IPS, ESCP and other science curriculum reform initiatives were started by NDEA or related funding.

Space WebQuest

Important Dates in Education
 * 1958 ** At least partially because of Sputnik, [|science and science education become important concerns in the U.S.,] resulting in the passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) which authorizes increased funding for scientific research and science education.

**1959** The [|ACT Test] is first administered. 1962 **In // [|Engle v. Vitale] //, U.S. Supreme Court ruled compulsory prayer in public school illegal. **1962** First published in 1934, [|Lev Vygotsky's] book, //[|Thought and Language]// is introduced to the English-speaking world. Though he lives to be only 38, [|Vygotsky's ideas] regarding the social nature of learning provide important foundational principles for contemporary [|social constructivist theories]. He is perhaps best known for his concept of [|"Zone of Proximal Development."]
 * 1959 ** James B. Conant wrote //The American High School Today//
 * 1960 ** First grader [|Ruby Bridges] is the first African American to attend William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans. She becomes a class of one as parents remove all Caucasian students from the school.
 * 
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1963 **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> In the cases of [|School District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v. Schempp] and [|Murray v. Curlett,] the U. S. Supreme Court reaffirms Engel v. Vitale by ruling that "no state law or school board may require that passages from the Bible be read or that the Lord's Prayer be recited in the public schools . . . even if individual students may be excused from attending or participating . . ."
 * 1963 ** [|Vocational Education Act] becomes law. This provided additional federal support for vocational programs, in addition to providing training for work-study programs.


 * 1963** - [|Samuel A. Kirk] uses the term [|"learning disability"] at a Chicago conference on children with perceptual disorders. The term sticks, and in 1964, the [|Association for Children with Learning Disabilities,] now the [|Learning Disabilities Association of America,] is formed. Today, nearly one-half of all students in the U.S. who receive special education have been identified as having [|learning disabilities.]


 * 1964** - The [|Civil Rights Act] becomes law. It prohibits discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion or national origin.


 * 1965** - The [|Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)] is passed on April 9. Part of Lyndon Johnson's "War on Poverty," it provides federal funds to help low-income students, which results in the initiation of educational programs such as Title I and bilingual education.


 * 1965** - The[| Higher Education Act][|(PL 89-329)] is signed at Southwest Texas State College on November 8. It increases federal aid to higher education and provides for scholarships, student loans, and establishes a [|National Teachers Corps.]


 * 1965** - [|Project Head Start,] a preschool education program for children from low-income families, begins as an eight-week summer program. Part of the [|"War on Poverty,"] the program continues to this day as the longest-running anti-poverty program in the U.S.


 * 1966** - [|The Equality of Educational Opportunity Study,] often called the [|Coleman Report] because of its primary author [|James S. Coleman,] is conducted in response to provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Its conclusion that African American children benefit from attending integrated schools sets the stage for school "busing" to achieve desegregation.


 * 1966** - [|Jerome Bruner's] //Toward a Theory of Instruction// is published. [|His views regarding learning] help to popularize the cognitive learning theory as an alternative to behaviorism.


 * 1966** - Public Law 358, the [|Veterans Readjustment Benefits Act of 1966,] provides not only educational benefits, but also home and farm loans as well as employment counseling and placement services for Vietnam veterans. More than [|385,000 troops,] serve in Vietnam during 1966. From 1965-1975, more than nine million American military personnel are on active military duty, about 3.4 million of whom serve in Southeast Asia.


 * 1968** - The [|Bilingual Education Act], also know as Title VII, becomes law. After many years of controversy, the l[|aw is repealed] in 2002 and replaced by the [|No Child Left Behind Act.]


 * 1968** - The "Monkey Trial" revisited! In the case of [|Epperson et al. v. Arkansas,] the U.S. Supreme Court finds the state of Arkansas' law prohibiting the teaching of evolution in a public school or university unconstitutional.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1968 **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">- [|McCarver Elementary School] in Tacoma, Washington becomes the nation's first [|magnet school].


 * 1969** - [|Herbert R. Kohl's] book, //The Open Classroom,// helps to promote [|open education,] an approach emphasizing student-centered classrooms and active, holistic learning. The conservative back-to-the-basics movement of the [|1970s] begins at least partially as a backlash against open education..
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1969 **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - On April 30th, the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam stands at [|543,482,] the most at any time during the war. College enrollments swell as many young men seek student deferments from the draft; [|anti-war protests] become commonplace on college campuses, and [|grade inflation] begins as professors realize that low grades may change male students' draft status.


 * 1969** - [|ARPANET] (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network**)**, the first "packet-switching" network and precursor of the internet, is created by the U.S. Defense Department. Its [|first message] is sent October 29, at about 10:30 P.M. For alternate perspectives on the origins of the internet, see [|So, who really invented the internet?]


 * 1970** - [|Four students are killed by Ohio National Guard troops] on May 4th during an anti-war protest at Kent State University in Ohio.


 * 1970** - In his controversial book, //[|Deschooling Society,]// Ivan Illich sharply criticizes traditional schools and calls for [|the end of compulsory school attendance.]


 * 1970** - [|Jean Piaget's] book, //The Science of Education,// is published. His [|Learning Cycle model] helps to popularize discovery-based teaching approaches, particularly in the sciences.


 * 1970** - The case of [|Diana v. California State Board] results in new laws requiring that children referred for possible special education placement be tested in their primary language.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1971 **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - In the case of [|Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Pennsylvania,] the federal court rules that students with mental retardation are entitled to a free public education.


 * 1972** - The [|Indian Education Act] becomes law and establishes " a comprehensive approach to meeting the unique needs of American Indian and Alaska Native students"


 * 1972** - The case of [|Mills v. the Board of Education of Washington, D.C.] extends the PARC v. Pennsylvania ruling to other students with disabilities and requires the provision of "adequate alternative educational services suited to the child's needs, which may include special education . . ." Other similar cases follow.


 * 1972** - [|Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972]becomes law. Though many people associate this law only with girl's and women's participation in sports, Title IX prohibits discrimination based on sex in all aspects of education.


 * 1973** - U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War ends on January 27. More than [|58,000 U.S. service personnel are killed in action] during the war. The fighting continues until April 30, 1975 when South Vietnam surrenders to the communist North Vietnamese forces.


 * 1973** - [|Marian Wright Edelman] founds the [|Children's Defense Fund], a non-profit child advocacy organization.
 * 1973 ** - The Rehabilitation Act becomes law. [|Section 504] of this act guarantees civil rights for people with disabilities in the context of federally funded institutions and requires accommodations in schools including participation in programs and activities as well as access to buildings. Today, " [|504 Plans] " are used to provide accommodations for students with disabilities who do not qualify for special education or an IEP.


 * 1974** - [|Federal Judge Arthur Garrity orders busing] of African American students to predominantly white schools in order to achieve racial integration of public schools in Boston, MA. [|White parents protest,] particularly in South Boston.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1975 **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The [|Education of All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142)] becomes federal law. It requires that a free, appropriate public education, suited to the student's individual needs, and offered in the least restrictive setting be provided for all "handicapped" children. States are given until 1978 (later extended to 1981) to fully implement the law.


 * 1975** - The [|National Association of Bilingual Education] is founded.


 * 1975** - //Newsweek's// December 8 cover story, [|"Why Johnny Can't Write,"] heats up the debate about national literacy and the [|back-to-the-basics movement.]

From //Guidelines for Teaching Mathematics// (1967) <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;">Factors causing a change in school mathematics: · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">New mathematics have been created. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">New uses for mathematics have been discovered. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Our scientific society needs greater numbers of persons with high mathematical competence. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">New knowledge about how children learn mathematical ideas have been discovered in recent years. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Increased financial support of experimental projects by private foundations and the federal government has stimulated innovations. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Probably one of the greatest factors in creating a need for new mathematics was the lack of success of traditional content and method.

Criticisms of the new programs:

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The applications of mathematics are largely ignored. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The limited attention to practices results in inadequate computational skill. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The rigor, precision, and symbolism are too great for a large proportion of secondary-school students. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The content outlined for each grade is too extensive to be adequately presented in the time available. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The general objectives of education for citizenship in our democracy are ignored. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There are no adequate courses for the low-ability, non-college-bound, or culturally deprived students. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The emphasis on logic and structure has reduced the mastery of basic concepts and operations. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The formality of the presentation has resulted in a loss of interest on the part of many students. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The new programs are not effective as preparation for college mathematics.

=<span style="background-color: #000080; color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 270%; text-align: center; vertical-align: sub;">The Civil Rights Era =

= [|tp://www.cnn.com/EVENTS/1997/mlk/links.html] =

The Post-Sputnik Civil Rights Struggle

 * 1954** -- U.S. Supreme Court declares school segregation unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ruling.

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President Eisenhower sends in federal troops to ensure compliance. 1960** -- Four black college students begin sit-ins at lunch counter of a Greensboro, North Carolina, restaurant where black patrons are not served. Congress approves a watered-down voting rights act after a filibuster by Southern senators. The Supreme Court rules that segregation is unconstitutional in all transportation facilities. The Department of Defense orders full integration of military reserve units, the National Guard excluded. Three civil rights workers disappear in Mississippi after being stopped for speeding; found buried six weeks later. Riots in Harlem, Philadelphia. Malcolm X assassinated. Riot in Watts, Los Angeles. New voting rights act signed. media type="youtube" key="gBPeCQzHu5w" height="537" width="672" align="center"
 * 1956** -- Coalition of Southern congressmen calls for massive resistance to Supreme Court desegregation rulings.
 * 1957 September** -- Arkansas Gov. Orval Faubus uses National Guard to block nine black students from attending a Little Rock High School; following a court order,
 * 1957 October - Launch of Sputnik
 * 1962** -- President Kennedy sends federal troops to the University of Mississippi to quell riots so that James Meredith, the school's first black student, can attend.
 * 1964** -- Congress passes Civil Rights Act declaring discrimination based on race illegal after 75-day long filibuster.
 * 1965** -- March from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to demand protection for voting rights; two civil rights workers slain earlier in the year in Selma.
 * 1975** --Voting Rights Act extended. In 1975 the U.S. Congress also passed legislation now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (I.D.E.A.),
 * 1978** -- Supreme Court rules that medical school admission programs that set aside positions based on race are unconstitutional (Bakke decision).
 * 1979** -- Shoot-out in Greensboro, North Carolina, leaves five anti-Klan protesters dead; 12 Klansmen charged with murder.
 * 1983** -- Martin Luther King Jr. federal holiday established.
 * 1988** -- Congress passes Civil Rights Restoration Act over President Reagan's veto.

Voices of the Civil Rights Quiz

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 190%; text-align: center;"> ** Programs in Science for Minority Students, 1960-1975 **

**<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16pt; text-align: center;">American Association for the Advancement of Science ****<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16pt; text-align: center;">National Science Foundation, Washington D.C. ** [] ** Office of Opportunities in Science **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">The Major Purposes of the OOS Are… **

Office of Opportunities in Science which began in 1972. OOS developed programs to support entry and advancement of women and minorities in careers in science, mathematics, engineering and biomedicine. In 1975 the mandate of the Office was expanded to include persons with disabilities. The issues surrounding diversity in science and engineering have shifted over the years and, in response to the changes, so did the structure of programs evolve. [] Around 30% of the projects listed were health-related, including pre-medicine, pre-dentistry, pre-veterinary medicine, optometry, nursing, the allied health fields and biomedical research. If the indirect references are counted, the number of health-related program activities aimed at minorities soared to around 50%. Another 30% of the programs were targeted toward increasing the number of minorities in engineering and the technical areas. Around 15% were programs in science education counseling, environmental education, or general as many museum based programs were so classified. The natural resources areas, including forestry, fisheries, etc., made up around 3% of the projects. Of the remaining programs about 20% were directed toward a particular scientific discipline or combination of these. (Programs in Science, 14)
 * To increase the number of minorities, women and the handicapped in the natural, social and applied sciences.
 * To increase the kinds of opportunities available to these groups
 * To increase the participation of minority, women and handicapped scientists and engineers in policy-making, advisory and managerial positions.

Most of the funding for the health-related efforts was from federal and/or state monies. The engineering efforts were largely privately funded from both foundations and corporations. Their motivation seemed in part to have been based on the need to fill future manpower needs and in part on the desire to meet future affirmative action goals. (15)

Around 35% of the projects were specifically targeted for Blacks, 7% for Native Americans, 4% for Chicanos, and only one program specifically for Puerto Ricans. 6% of the programs were aimed specifically at Blacks and Puerto Ricans; 10% Blacks and Chicanos, and the remaining programs were for various combinations of racial/ethnic minority groups. (15)

The federal efforts to increase the numbers of minority and disadvantaged persons in the health fields was based on a clear need to serve the health needs of underserved areas and peoples, i.e., to improve the health care received by minorities and other disadvantaged persons in the United States. (15)

More than 45% of the programs undertaken to improve the science education of minority students were aimed exclusively at the undergraduate collegiate level, while only 7% and 18% were specifically become immediately significant if one notes that most minority scientists and educators identify the pre-college level as the one where there exists the greatest need for additional coordinated sustained effort to increase the pool from which minority scientist come. The skewing in favor of college level programs is based on the desire for more immediate pay off in terms of the output of minority scientists, engineers or health professionals. (16)

Dwight D. Eisenhower Speech

** __In an attempt to address the various levels of the problem of increasing minority participation in science many approaches were undertaken.__ **

** Curriculum Change: ** Many programs attempted to effect change in the rate of participation of minority group members in science via changes in curriculum. Three examples are outlined below: activities of the Institute for Services to Education (ISE); the National Center for Curriculum Development Coordination; and the Ethoscience Curriculum. (Programs in Science, 19)

ISE was a private nonprofit organization based in Washington, D.C., which assists education institutions in faculty and curriculum development, planning and management, and research and evaluation. The Thirteen College Curriculum Program was a program for curriculum and instructional improvement involving ISE assistance to forty-five traditionally Black institutions. The project developed a comprehensive innovative curriculum by developing course materials, by designing teaching techniques, strategies and activities that are motivating to the students by involving teachers in continuous re-evaluation of their teaching effectiveness in terms of meeting student needs. (19)
 * [|Institute for Services to Education (ISE)], [|Thirteen College Curriculum Program (TCCP)]**

This planned center was directed at affecting the pre-college level (high school) education of minority students for the purpose of preparing them to enter engineering education. (19)
 * [|National Center for Curriculum Development Coordination]**

This curriculum developed by Carl Hime was specifically directed at incorporating traditional scientific knowledge and systems into the teaching of science in elementary schools. Specially developed for Navajo children, it included parental and community input and uses the discovery method of teaching and learning. Though specific in its content the ethnoscience curriculum was generally adaptable to other cultural groups. (20)
 * [|Ethoscience Curriculum]**

In the 1960’s television was not a promising medium for the educating of science to minority youth. **[|Infinity Factory]** was considered a major breakthrough in the programming of mathematics. This program was developed by the [|Educational Development Center (EDC)] of Newton, Massachusetts. It was a series of programs aimed at teaching math concepts to Black and Hispanic students. It incorporated situation-story lines to teach math principles, while including cultural aspects of these minority groups. (20)
 * Television and Education **

**Then the first episode of Sesame Street aired in November of 1969.**

[]

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Memories of Sputnik: The Space Race and the ‘Race’ Race
By **Lee A. Daniels** As I’ve done for years, Sunday I quietly celebrated the coming of October 4, because I’ve always considered what happened on that date an integral part of the black freedom struggle—and my own good fortune. On that day 52 years ago, the Soviet Union announced that it had successfully shot into orbit the world’s first man-made satellite: //Sputnik.// For a nine-year-old black boy in Chicago who was a devotee of that city’s Adler Planetarium, //Sputnik// couldn’t have been more welcome. Suddenly, dreams of space and space travel were no longer a fantasy. Suddenly, the numerous trips to the planetarium and my repeatedly poring over the section on astronomy in the pages of our World Book Encyclopedia had a deeper meaning. //Sputnik// had slipped the chains of gravity. Its beep-beep-beep signal enabling the Soviet space engineers (and the Americans, too) to track its trajectory also foretold that man himself would soon be able to free himself of the Earth. My mind was already wandering out there among Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto and Uranus, looking back on our small blue orb. Meanwhile, back on Earth, the federal government, frightened by the prospect of Soviet control of space – and thus, domination of the Earth itself – immediately began pouring money into its spectacularly-to-that-point unsuccessful space program, into development of more military armaments, and into both improving the curriculum of the nation’s elementary schools and building a vast, monied federal scholarship and loan program to spur more American youth to go to college. []

Mae Jemison Speaks About Government Funding of Science Mae C. Jemison, the first African-American woman to travel into space, speaks at the Task Forcemedia type="youtube" key="3Y-quXxejI4" height="385" width="480" align="right" on the Future of American Innovation, event "Sputnik in the YouTube Age"in the U.S. Congress Rayburn Office Building on Thursday, November 8, 2007. media type="youtube" key="A46TqRVLBio" height="344" width="425" align="left"

January 20, 2009 — José Moreno Hernández was born on August 7, 1962 in French Camp, California, but calls Stockton, California as his hometown. He is an American engineer of Mexican descent and a NASA astronaut. He is currently assigned to the crew of Space Shuttle mission STS-128.NASA engineer Jose Hernandez wanted to fly in space ever since he heard that the first Hispanic-American had been chosen to travel into space. "I was hoeing a row of sugar beets in a field near Stockton, Calif., and I heard on my transistor radio that Franklin Chang-Diaz had been selected for the Astronaut Corps," says Hernandez, who was a senior in high school at the time. "I was already interested in science and engineering," Hernandez remembers, "but that was the moment I said, 'I want to fly in space.' And that's something I've been striving for each day since then." And now that hard work is paying off. He has been selected to begin training as a mission specialist as part of the 2004 astronaut candidate class.

Under Construction: Building the Engineering Pipeline
by Ronald Roach, March 9, 2006 The boot camp mentality in engineering programs has lessened over the years as many schools struggle to retain their minority students. Not since the days of the Sputnik I rocket launch by the former Soviet Union have U.S. policymakers worried so much and so openly about America’s competitiveness on the world stage. The United States feared falling behind in the race for military supremacy and space exploration after Sputnik achieved orbit in 1957. These days, policymakers fret that the country could lose its claim as the world’s most competitive and productive economy. That prospect has even President Bush touting new national initiatives. []

The Birth of Modern Special Education

War on Poverty

Educational Thinkers

__Academic Freedom and Teacher Unions__

Additional Links [|1960's Culture and History] [|1970's Culture and History] [|1960's Video] [|Stratford Academy]

​Group Reflection

References: Hickam, H.H. (1998). //Rocket boys: A memoir.// New York, NY: Delta Johnson, B.A. & Rising, G.R. (1967). //Guidelines for teaching mathematics//. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. Johnson, J.A., Dupuis, V.L., Musial, D., & Hall, G.E. (1994). //Instruction to the foundations of American Education//. (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Sass, E. (2009). //American educational history: a hypertext timeline//. Retrieved from []